ORF disease: a case report with images.

This article presents the case of a 25-year-old Moroccan male who contracted Orf disease (Ecthyma contagiosum), a common zoonotic viral infection in sheep and goats. The disease, caused by a parapoxvirus, can be transmitted to humans through contact with infected animals. The patient developed painful lesions on his fingers after interacting with a sheep during the Feast of Sacrifice. Diagnosis was clinically established considering exposure history and lesion characteristics. Treatment involved local antiseptics and 2% fusidic acid cream. The lesions resolved spontaneously over a few weeks without functional impairment.

Duck Tembusu virus NS3 protein induces apoptosis by activating the PERK/PKR pathway and mitochondrial pathway.

IMPORTANCE: Duck Tembusu virus (DTMUV) is an emerging pathogenic flavivirus that replicates well in mosquito, bird, and mammalian cells. An in vivo study revealed that BALB/c mice and Kunming mice were susceptible to DTMUV after intracerebral inoculation. Moreover, there are no reports about DTMUV-related human disease, but antibodies against DTMUV and viral RNA were detected in the serum samples of duck industry workers. This information implies that DTMUV has expanded its host range and poses a threat to mammalian health. Thus, understanding the pathogenic mechanism of DTMUV is crucial for identifying potential antiviral targets. In this study, we discovered that NS3 can induce the mitochondria-mediated apoptotic pathway through the PERK/PKR pathway; it can also interact with voltage-dependent anion channel 2 to induce apoptosis. Our findings provide a theoretical basis for understanding the pathogenic mechanism of DTMUV infection and identifying potential antiviral targets and may also serve as a reference for exploring the pathogenesis of other flaviviruses.

Possible Cross-Reactivity of Feline and White-Tailed Deer Antibodies against the SARS-CoV-2 Receptor Binding Domain.

In late 2019, a novel coronavirus began circulating within humans in central China. It was designated SARS-CoV-2 because of its genetic similarities to the 2003 SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV). Now that SARS-CoV-2 has spread worldwide, there is a risk of it establishing new animal reservoirs and recombination with native circulating coronaviruses. To screen local animal populations in the United States for exposure to SARS-like coronaviruses, we developed a serological assay using the receptor binding domain (RBD) from SARS-CoV-2. SARS-CoV-2's RBD is antigenically distinct from common human and animal coronaviruses, allowing us to identify animals previously infected with SARS-CoV or SARS-CoV-2. Using an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for SARS-CoV-2's RBD, we screened serum from wild and domestic animals for the presence of antibodies against SARS-CoV-2's RBD. Surprisingly prepandemic feline serum samples submitted to the University of Tennessee Veterinary Hospital were ∼50% positive for anti-SARS RBD antibodies. Some of these samples were serologically negative for feline coronavirus (FCoV), raising the question of the etiological agent generating anti-SARS-CoV-2 RBD cross-reactivity. We also identified several white-tailed deer from South Carolina with anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. These results are intriguing, as cross-reactive antibodies toward SARS-CoV-2 RBD have not been reported to date. The etiological agent responsible for seropositivity was not readily apparent, but finding seropositive cats prior to the current SARS-CoV-2 pandemic highlights our lack of information about circulating coronaviruses in other species. IMPORTANCE We report cross-reactive antibodies from prepandemic cats and postpandemic South Carolina white-tailed deer that are specific for that SARS-CoV RBD. There are several potential explanations for this cross-reactivity, each with important implications to coronavirus disease surveillance. Perhaps the most intriguing possibility is the existence and transmission of an etiological agent (such as another coronavirus) with similarity to SARS-CoV-2's RBD region. However, we lack conclusive evidence of prepandemic transmission of a SARS-like virus. Our findings provide impetus for the adoption of a One Health Initiative focusing on infectious disease surveillance of multiple animal species to predict the next zoonotic transmission to humans and future pandemics.

First Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Delta (B.1.617.2) Variant of Concern in a Dog with Clinical Signs in Spain.

Several cases of naturally infected dogs with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have been reported despite the apparently low susceptibility of this species. Here, we document the first reported case of infection caused by the Delta (B.1.617.2) variant of concern (VOC) in a dog in Spain that lived with several household members suffering from Coronavirus Infectious Disease 2019 (COVID-19). The animal displayed mild digestive and respiratory clinical signs and had a low viral load in the oropharyngeal swab collected at the first sampling. Whole-genome sequencing indicated infection with the Delta variant, coinciding with the predominant variant during the fifth pandemic wave in Spain. The dog seroconverted, as detected 21 days after the first sampling, and developed neutralizing antibodies that cross-neutralized different SARS-CoV-2 variants. This study further emphasizes the importance of studying the susceptibility of animal species to different VOCs and their potential role as reservoirs in the context of COVID-19.

Primary Infection May Be an Underlying Factor Contributing to Lethal Hemorrhagic Disease Caused by Elephant Endotheliotropic Herpesvirus 3 in African Elephants (Loxodonta africana).

Distinct but related species of elephant endotheliotropic herpesviruses (EEHVs) circulate within Asian and African elephant populations. Primary infection with EEHVs endemic among Asian elephants can cause clinical illness and lethal EEHV hemorrhagic disease (EEHV-HD). The degree to which this occurs among African elephants has not been fully established. Recent cases of EEHV-HD caused by the EEHV3 species in African elephants housed in North American zoos has heightened concern about the susceptibility of this elephant species to EEHV-HD. In this study, we utilize the luciferase immunoprecipitation system (LIPS) to generate a serological assay specific for EEHV3 in African elephants by detecting antibodies against the EEHV3 E34 protein. The results showed that the majority of tested elephants from four separate and genetically unrelated herds, including five elephants that survived clinical illness associated with EEHV3, were positive for prior infection with EEHV3. However, African elephants who succumbed to EEHV3-HD were seronegative for EEHV3 prior to lethal infection. This supports the hypothesis that fatal EEHV-HD caused by EEHV3 is associated with primary infection rather than reactivation of latent virus. Lastly, we observed that African elephants, like Asian elephants, acquire abundant anti-EEHV antibodies prenatally and that anti-EEHV3 specific antibodies were either never detected or declined to undetectable levels in those animals that died from lethal disease following EEHV3 infection. IMPORTANCE Prior to 2019, only five cases of clinical disease from EEHV infection among African elephants had been documented. Since 2019, there have been at least seven EEHV-HD cases in North American zoos, resulting in three fatalities, all associated with EEHV3. Evidence is accumulating to suggest that EEHV-associated clinical illness and death among Asian elephants is due to primary infection and may be associated with waning anti-EEHV antibody levels in young elephants. The development of the EEHV3 serological test described in this study enabled us to confirm that similar dynamics may be contributing to EEHV-HD in African elephants. The ability to screen for EEHV immune status in African elephant calves will have a major impact on managing captive African elephant herds and will provide new tools for investigating and understanding EEHV in wild populations.

Experimental and Natural Infections of Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus in Dogs.

Dogs are frequently infected with the tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV). However, to date, only a few clinically manifest cases of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) have been reported in dogs. In this study, three-month-old beagle dogs were infected with TBEV through a subcutaneous injection. Body temperature, clinical signs, blood haematology, blood biochemistry, and immune responses were monitored for up to 28 days postinfection (p.i.). No changes in body temperature or clinical signs were observed in the infected dogs. Most haematology and blood biochemistry parameters were unchanged after the infection, except for a slight reduction in blood lymphocyte counts, but they were within the physiological range. Low-titre viraemia was detected in 2/4 infected dogs between days 1 and 3 p.i. All infected dogs developed a robust immune response, in terms of neutralising antibodies. Thus, TBEV infections lead to effective seroconversion in dogs. Next, to assess TBEV exposure in dogs in the TBEV-endemic region of the Czech Republic, we conducted a serosurvey. Virus neutralisation tests revealed TBEV-specific antibodies in 17 of 130 (13.07%) healthy dogs, which confirmed a high, but clinically inappreciable TBEV exposure rate in the endemic area. The seropositivity rate was similar (12.7%; 41 positives out of 323) in a subgroup of dogs with various clinical disorders, and it was 13.4% (23 out of 171) in a subgroup of dogs with signs of acute neurological disease. Two dogs with fatal acute meningoencephalitis showed positive results for TBEV-specific IgM and IgG antibodies. These data extended our understanding of the clinical presentation of TBEV infections.

First Detection of SARS-CoV-2 B.1.1.7 Variant of Concern in an Asymptomatic Dog in Spain.

Natural SARS-CoV-2 infection in pets has been widely documented during the last year. Although the majority of reports suggested that dogs' susceptibility to the infection is low, little is known about viral pathogenicity and transmissibility in the case of variants of concern, such as B.1.1.7 in this species. Here, as part of a large-scale study on SARS-CoV-2 prevalence in pets in Spain, we have detected the B.1.1.7 variant of concern (VOC) in a dog whose owners were infected with SARS-CoV-2. The animal did not present any symptoms, but viral loads were high in the nasal and rectal swabs. In addition, viral isolation was possible from both swabs, demonstrating that the dog was shedding infectious virus. Seroconversion occurred 23 days after the first sampling. This study documents the first detection of B.1.1.7 VOC in a dog in Spain and emphasizes the importance of performing active surveillance and genomic investigation on infected animals.

SARS-CoV-2 natural infection in animals: a systematic review of studies and case reports and series.

COVID-19 pandemic is essentially a zoonotic disease. In this context, early in 2020, transmission from humans to certain animals began reporting; the number of studies has grown since. To estimate the pooled prevalence of SARS-CoV-2 natural infection in animals and to determine differences in prevalence between countries, years, animal types and diagnostic methods (RT-PCR or serological tests). A systematic literature review with meta-analysis using eight databases. Observational studies were included but analyzed separately. We performed a random-effects model meta-analysis to calculate the pooled prevalence and 95% confidence interval (95% CI) for prevalence studies and case series. After the screening, 65 reports were selected for full-text assessment and included for qualitative and quantitative analyses. A total of 24 reports assessed SARS-CoV-2 infection by RT-PCR, combining a total of 321,785 animals, yielding a pooled prevalence of 12.3% (95% CI 11.6%-13.0%). Also, a total of 17 studies additionally assessed serological response against SARS-CoV-2, including nine by ELISA, four by PRTN, one by MIA, one by immunochromatography (rest, two studies, the method was not specified), combining a total of 5319 animals, yielding a pooled prevalence of 29.4% (95% CI 22.9%-35.9%). A considerable proportion of animals resulted infected by SARS-CoV-2, ranking minks among the highest value, followed by dogs and cats. Further studies in other animals are required to define the extent and importance of natural infection due to SARS-CoV-2. These findings have multiple implications for public human and animal health. One Health approach in this context is critical for prevention and control.

Past and current advances in Marburg virus disease: a review.

Marburg Virus (MARV), along with the Ebola virus, belongs to the family of Filovirus and is cause of a lethal and severely affecting hemorrhagic fever. The Marburgvirus genus includes two viruses: MARV and Ravn. MARV has been recognized as one of utmost importance by the World Health Organization (WHO). The case fatality rate of the virus ranges from 24.0 to 88.0% which demonstrates its lethal nature and the need for its widespread information. The first case of the Marburgvirus disease (MARD) was reported in 1967 when lab personnel working with African green monkeys got infected in Germany and Serbia simultaneously. Following the initial case, many more outbreaks occurred around the world such as Uganda, Angola, Congo, Kenya and even in the United States in 2008. It was soon found out that the MARV was a zoonotic virus and mainly contracted from animal-to-human contact and further transmitted via human-to-human contact. The Egyptian fruit bat (Rousettus aegyptiacus) is known to be one of the significant sources of the infection and tourists visiting caves inhabited by these bats or workers accessing mines, populated by the bats, are at an increased risk of contracting the illness. The incubation period ranges from 2-21 days and the clinical outcome can be broken down into three phases: initial generalized phase (day 1-4), early organ phase (day 5 to 13) and either a late organ/convalescence phase (day 13 onwards). Furthermore, the treatment of MARD is solely based on supportive care. Much has been investigated in over the past half-century of the initial infection but only a few treatment options show promising results. In addition, special precaution is advised whilst handling the patient or the biospecimens. Disease-modifying agents and inhibitors of viral replications show constructive outcomes. It is crucial to identify the host of the virus and educate the populations that are greatly at risk of the disease. While much is being investigated to devise a vaccine, it is important to educate Health Care Workers (HCWs) and close contacts facing the illness. Stopping the transmission remains the best measure that can be taken.

Seoul Virus Infection and Spread in United States Home-Based Ratteries: Rat and Human Testing Results From a Multistate Outbreak Investigation.

BACKGROUND: During 2017, a multistate outbreak investigation occurred after the confirmation of Seoul virus (SEOV) infections in people and pet rats. A total of 147 humans and 897 rats were tested. METHODS: In addition to immunoglobulin (Ig)G and IgM serology and traditional reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), novel quantitative RT-PCR primers/probe were developed, and whole genome sequencing was performed. RESULTS: Seventeen people had SEOV IgM, indicating recent infection; 7 reported symptoms and 3 were hospitalized. All patients recovered. Thirty-one facilities in 11 US states had SEOV infection, and among those with ≥10 rats tested, rat IgG prevalence ranged 2%-70% and SEOV RT-PCR positivity ranged 0%-70%. Human laboratory-confirmed cases were significantly associated with rat IgG positivity and RT-PCR positivity (P = .03 and P = .006, respectively). Genomic sequencing identified >99.5% homology between SEOV sequences in this outbreak, and these were >99% identical to SEOV associated with previous pet rat infections in England, the Netherlands, and France. Frequent trade of rats between home-based ratteries contributed to transmission of SEOV between facilities. CONCLUSIONS: Pet rat owners, breeders, and the healthcare and public health community should be aware and take steps to prevent SEOV transmission in pet rats and to humans. Biosecurity measures and diagnostic testing can prevent further infections.

Development of a TaqMan Based Real-Time Fluorescent Quantitative PCR Assay for Detection of Porcine Cytomegalovirus in Semen.

This study described a TaqMan based real-time fluorescent quantitative PCR (qPCR) method to detect porcine cytomegalovirus (PCMV) infection, targeting the conserved region of the DNA polymerase (DPOL) gene. The standard curve showed a linear regression relationship with a coefficient of 0.999 and a slope of y = -3.249x + 38.958 corresponding to the amplification efficiency at 99.8%. The limit of the qPCR method was 51.9 copies/µl. The established qPCR method showed excellent specificity, with no cross-reaction observed with common porcine pathogens. The coefficient of variation for intra-assay and interassay variability ranged up to 1.51% and 2.24%, respectively. PCMV positive signals can be found in semen using this qPCR method, which suggested that we should pay more attention to PCMV contamination in semen in order to eliminate PCMV infection in artificial insemination and xenotransplantation.

Japanese encephalitis virus: a review on emerging diagnostic techniques.

Japanese Encephalitis Virus (JEV) is the most common Flavivirus based mosquito borne viral encephalitis in the world, especially in countries of South-East Asia. The conventional methods such as Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assays (ELISA), Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR), Plaque Reduction Neutralization Test and virus isolation are still in use today but new advances are being made to develop more efficient, inexpensive, quicker, sensitive and time-saving techniques to detect JEV. Some of these include the use of immunosensors, both lateral flow based assays and electrochemical, as well as the incorporation of nanotechnology into biosensors to develop highly sensitive detection tools. This review focuses on the recent advances that have been made to diagnose Japanese Encephalitis Virus which are critical in breaking the link to zoonotic transmission into the human population where humans are dead-end hosts.

Modern biologics for rabies prophylaxis and the elimination of human cases mediated by dogs.

Introduction: Rabies is a major viral zoonosis and neglected tropical disease, with a global distribution. Humans, domestic animals, and wild mammals are susceptible to infection. Etiological agents reside in the Order Mononegavirales, Family Rhabdoviridae, Genus Lyssavirus. This acute, progressive encephalitis causes the highest case fatality of any conventional infectious disease. Tens of millions of humans become exposed annually to the bites of infected mammals, predominantly in Asia and Africa. Despite the existence of effective vaccines and immune globulins, tens of thousands of people, typically children in the developing world, succumb. Areas covered: Concentrating upon both historical and major published references from the peer-reviewed literature over the past 5 years, we describe current biologics for rabies prevention, newly recommended principles for prophylaxis, and relevant future products in the developmental pipeline. Expert opinion: Modern human rabies biologics are pure, potent, safe, and efficacious, when used in a timely and appropriate manner. Few individuals survive after clinical signs. Anti-viral compounds are not licensed. Experimental therapy, while obviously desirable, is highly controversial. Education on bite prevention and integrated risk management are critical. Access to affordable care, dose-sparing, and shortened regimens of human rabies biologics remain key.

An Insight into Nanomedicinal Approaches to Combat Viral Zoonoses.

BACKGROUND: Emerging viral zoonotic diseases are one of the major obstacles to secure the "One Health" concept under the current scenario. Current prophylactic, diagnostic and therapeutic approaches often associated with certain limitations and thus proved to be insufficient for customizing rapid and efficient combating strategy against the highly transmissible pathogenic infectious agents leading to the disastrous socio-economic outcome. Moreover, most of the viral zoonoses originate from the wildlife and poor knowledge about the global virome database renders it difficult to predict future outbreaks. Thus, alternative management strategy in terms of improved prophylactic vaccines and their delivery systems; rapid and efficient diagnostics and effective targeted therapeutics are the need of the hour. METHODS: Structured literature search has been performed with specific keywords in bibliographic databases for the accumulation of information regarding current nanomedicine interventions along with standard books for basic virology inputs. RESULTS: Multi-arrayed applications of nanomedicine have proved to be an effective alternative in all the aspects regarding the prevention, diagnosis, and control of zoonotic viral diseases. The current review is focused to outline the applications of nanomaterials as anti-viral vaccines or vaccine/drug delivery systems, diagnostics and directly acting therapeutic agents in combating the important zoonotic viral diseases in the recent scenario along with their potential benefits, challenges and prospects to design successful control strategies. CONCLUSION: This review provides significant introspection towards the multi-arrayed applications of nanomedicine to combat several important zoonotic viral diseases.